Photos of Vietnam War

Table of Contents Introduction Reflexive-dialogic introduction Literature review Analytic section Conclusions Reference List Appendices Introduction Experiences of journalists in the Vietnam War changed media reporting of wars today. The media reported uncensored events of the war to the public. These stories and photographs changed the public’s opinion about the war. The War took place between 1957 and 1975 in South Vietnam.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Photos of Vietnam War specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The Vietnam War claimed over 60,000 American soldiers and over 2 million Vietnamese. These figures are estimates as the exact number of casualties are extremely difficult to know. Arguably, this was the most unpopular war among Americans. Critics and veterans believed that explicit and negative coverage of the war changed public opinion about it. Media have the capacity to shape opinions i.e. they can change the way we â€Å"think, feel, and react about situations and events† (Altheide, 2009). This explains why the two iconic photos changed Americans view about the War. The first one depicts napalmed child (Accident Napalm of 1972). The second is the execution of an alleged Viet Cong soldier by an American marine in the street of Saigon (Tet Execution of 1968). The review of literature and analysis shall show effects of the mass media on viewers and their views regarding the war. The analysis shall also involve common themes that emerged during the war due to media involvement and iconic photos that changed reporting style of subsequent wars. These two photos reflect moments of horrors during the Vietnam War. Critics considered these images iconic because of emotions they created among American viewers. In order to understand image representations of the Vietnam War, this study shall rely on semiotic analyses of photos through identifications of central ideas . We shall explore meanings behind photographs using signs and expressions, and how they relate to cultural aspects of society. Semiotic analyses enable us to understand meanings attributed to images and viewers’ perceptions of images in a given social context.Advertising Looking for dissertation on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different aspects of these photos can have different meanings to different people based on their cultural orientations. These iconic photos reveal the importance of photojournalism in reporting war events. Reflexive-dialogic introduction It is not possible to explain why the US government did not regulate media coverage of the Vietnam War. Americans watched all events of the war and viewed photographs obtained during the war. The media raised public concerns about the war and the rising number of casualties of the US soldiers. The question is whether events of the Vietnam War c reated better opportunities for media reporters, photographers and commentators to question Americans involvement in the War. The role of the media in the Vietnam War also raises issues of what the media ought to censor and report to the public. For instance, issues of Tet Offensive, Accidental Napalm, and other gruesome events that showed death and massive destruction created impressions that the Vietnam War was like that in Saigon and other areas. It could be that media representations of the war angered soldiers. Soldiers believed that media had biased reporting especially in the Tet Offensive where the media portrayed that the US was losing the battle, and the only way out was to withdraw from the war. This is because a section of the media portrayed dead US soldiers killed during the war. This kind of reporting gave critics opportunities to accuse mass media of bias. On the other hand, the media also claimed that they were reflecting perception of Americans regarding the war. M any issues could have changed Americans’ opinions about the war. These could have been increases in taxes to cater for costs of the war and the rising number of casualties. These issues were influential during the war than media reporting. Critics wonder whether media undermined activities of soldiers and the government in the Vietnam War.Advertising We will write a custom dissertation sample on Photos of Vietnam War specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The clash between the military and the media is inevitable. The media need to report events as they are while the military focuses on winning the war and minimizing the number of casualties. Reporting these events means freedom, complete access to news, no censorship and rapid communications of news to the audience by media. Conversely, the military wants restricted access and control of information. The media believe that attempts by the military to restrict access only aim at protecting their mistakes and enhancing their public image. These issues and differences remain crucial to relationships between the media and the military. The media and military can work together. However, there is always a strange sense of animosity that can ruin such efforts of working together. This happens due to lack of understanding between the media and the military. Based on their opposing objectives and missions, the relationship between the media and military shall remain strained. Literature review In the beginning of the Vietnam War, many correspondents expressed their supports for the war. At the time, the media did not question the US involvement in the Vietnam War. In fact, the media roles were to inform the US public and portray positive sides of the war. However, this trend changed with the Vietnam War as reporters and photographs started questioning the US government intentions and its roles in the war. The media focused on doubts and growing numbers of war casu alties. As a result, the public changed its opinion about the war. Reporters and photographers portrayed sad pictures and horrifying scenes of the Vietnam War. According to Allen and Seaton, wrong representations of war by photojournalists can create confusion and misunderstanding among audience (Allen and Seaton, 1999). These authors argue that media coverage is responsible for misunderstanding due to lack of adequate information. For instance, media portrayed that the US was losing the war and that there were increasing casualties and atrocities. Scholars have noted that this happened because of total freedom the media got in covering the Vietnam War and reporting what they wished. This is how the media bias influenced Americans against the war. On the other hand, Allan highlights how the Vietnam War changed war reporting today.Advertising Looking for dissertation on art and design? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This is what he refers to as objective reporting in the mass media (Allan, 2010). Allan looks at factors like cultural dynamism, racism, and sexism, and how they shape news reporting. The author also takes into consideration the role of various institutions, viewers, and practices of the media in reporting news. As the media started to report atrocities of the war and its politics, the public confidence changed. Americans doubted the government’s account about the war. The media resorted to investigative journalism in order to ascertain facts behind news the government released to the public. Before then, Allen and Seaton noted that media portrayal of wars fuelled hatred and ethnic loyalties. They also depicted how relying on vague and unfounded claims could trigger negative perceptions about the war (Allen and Seaton, 1999). Photographs and reports played significant roles in changing the public opinion against the government and the war. Misrepresentation of information by the media led the public to believe that the US soldiers had lost the war. The media acted as crucial sources of information for the public. On this note, Altheide notes that mass media can shape the content and form of war experiences (Altheide, 2009). Altheide focuses on mass media and their effects on propaganda, war on terrorism, and events after the 9/11 twin attacks. The author argues that it is fear that is responsible for the changing discourse and social meanings of wars. The author further looks at intervention strategies and how media stories influence future responses. Following claims that the US could not win the War at Tet Offensive, the US government decided that the public should receive optimistic news. This marked the regulation of contents the public could access. Since the US government did not censor news reporting, the public could receive photographs and live horrors of the war. People made films and accessed brutal images of the war. Photographs of the war s hocked the general public and significantly shifted the people’s opinion against the war. At the same time, â€Å"power of photography came to light, and how it could show brutality and assaults of the war† (Allan, 2010). Both still and moving pictures had significant influences about the horror of the war. Whereas the Vietnam War representations in motion pictures took new turns with symbols, images, and metaphors, still pictures remained factual representations of the war. Consequently, scholars have studied major themes relating to social, political, and cultural meanings of these films (Auster and Quart, 1988). The famous photo where General Nguyen Ngoc Loan executes a Viet Cong soldier in the street of Saigon (Tet Execution) has gained recognition over time. The General shot the soldier in a street before cameras. This photograph was responsible for increasing resentment among Americans about the war. This execution helped people change their opinions about the wa r and the role of the US government in the Vietnam War. Another photograph of interest is the photo of â€Å"a nine-year-old girl fleeing naked and shouting after sustaining serious burn from the napalm† (Accidental Napalm 1972). There were also other photographs of massive influence. These included a photo of a Buddhist monk protesting against the war by burning himself to death, and at home, the Kent State University protest. These photographs played crucial roles in bringing real images of the war to the public. Americans did not like what they saw on televisions and read on newspapers. Cottle observes that news and reporting are not neutral among different cultures. As a result, messages have cultural meanings and assumptions about various societies (Cottle, 2004). Photographs are best forms of representations. However, in the modern time, influences of photographs representation in wars have stirred different political and ideological concerns. We cannot separate photogr aph representations from the culture of journalism and the public they serve. Allen and Seaton note that media reporting should go behind ethnicity and relations to cultural context when reporting events (Allen and Seaton, 1999). They note that due to lack of sufficient information, the media may create misunderstanding. According to these authors, ethnicity is dynamic and has different constructions. Contemporary society has come with methods of regulating access to information, pictures and films through rating their contents to different viewers. This is a way of creating and enhancing preferred values and ideologies among viewers. However, restrictions of representations can achieve limited result. This is because images can have their own lives before the audience. In addition, they cannot have fixed and concrete meaning. Representations of images always create a gap between intended meanings and realized meanings. From the above observation, we can note that representations ma y create errors, misunderstanding, and inconsistency. Thus, we cannot guarantee factual representations based on interpretation of signs in various cultures. According to Andersen, the relationship between the media and war is deep. She notes that the focus is on the public’s perception (Andersen, 2006). Therefore, reporting helps in justification of wars and influence future wars. The author argues that war consists of â€Å"death and suffering, protest and pain, guilt and abuse and struggle for representation† (Andersen, 2006). However, this representation has changed over time as methods of reporting have changed, and censorship and propaganda have acquired new meanings. The author argues that technology has transformed representation of war as the film industry has changed wars into forms of entertainment. On war and propaganda, Hammond notes that changes have occurred. He concludes that Western military operation has acquired new dimensions of representation using new technologies that promote propaganda (Hammond, 2007; Cottle, 2004). In this view, Hammond notes that the media only serves to accelerate wars due to diverse misconceptions and political interests. The author also observes that power is at the central, and its projection leads to a lack of cohesion and orientation at home. Anderegg and Grey looked at various films representing the Vietnam War and noted that such representations used myths and metaphors in order to reflect glamorised standards of Hollywood (Anderegg, 1991; Grey, 1992). Anderegg also noted that later representations of the Vietnam War strived to capture real events but with new twists and myths. The author was keen on representations of issues regarding â€Å"power and powerlessness of victims and soldiers, gender roles, and racial views these films captured† (Anderegg, 1991). He also noted how teaching of the Vietnam War changed regarding contents and the intended audience. Photographs acted as means of re presenting the war in Vietnam to Americans. The US public believed that photographs had accurate representations of the war. The reasons for the US withdrawal from the war may not be certain. However, it is clear that photos and live reporting of events significantly swayed the public opinion about the war. Gilboa takes a cross-cultural look in an attempt to understand the relationship between media and wars. The author notes that media reporting is necessary in conflict management, resolution and transformation. In this case, the media influence conflict representation particularly with identity and ethnicity (Gilboa, 2002). According to Der Derian, technology and video game industry have created flawed systems in real wars and responses (Der Derian, 2009; Franklin, 2000). According to the author, the US has blundered due to over reliance on technology, virtue, and threats of terror. He also notes that technological representations of wars depict a low risk affair. Representations of the Vietnam War took different aspects. Hixson portrays various ways in which people have kept memories of the war (Hixson, 2000). However, these representations deviated from actual events as films begun to produce motion pictures for commercial purposes. According to Sturken, representations of the Vietnam War and AIDS epidemic have transformed the US culture. The author looks at effects of camera images on cultural memory, media fantasy, trauma that survivors experience and how healing processes can smooth tensions. Scholars portray a culture of amnesia among Americans when it comes to recalling events of war (Sturken, 1997; Buzzanco, 1999). Analytic section From the Vietnam War, we can note three significant events. First, photojournalism changed the history of war reporting. Second, the media attempts to reveal the truth led Americans to doubt their government. Finally, televisions and photographs were significant in shaping the public’s perceptions about the war. Cri tics believe that the media had a negative impact on Americans regarding the outcome of the Vietnam War. The media reporting portrayed images of horror that the public could not withstand. We must understand that the media supported this war during early stages of the US involvement. However, television coverage and photographs changed Americans perception about the war. The biased reporting only concentrated on actions of the US soldiers and ignored atrocities that North Vietnam committed. As a result, the anti-war demonstrations gained the media attention. Journalists and media pundits have debated the war reporting and its impacts on the public for many years. However, critics believe that it is only veterans who can give true accounts of the war. This is because media main concerns are reporting events without understanding their meanings. As a result, war veterans believed that the television reporting distorted news by misrepresentation. For instance, they made the public beli eve that the US had lost the war while reality at the field was different. Critics also believe that the media portrayed anti-war demonstrators as traitors. The media claimed that anti-war demonstrators were sympathizers of the US enemies. In addition, the media only concentrated on violet aspects of the anti-war demonstrations. Critics believed that the media engaged in extremism so as to gain the public’s attention. As a result, the anti-war movement gained popularity through defiant definitions that various media portrayed. This is manipulation of the media. It created a distant public from the government. The media ignored values and ideas the anti-war movement proclaimed. Instead, it concentrated on portraying violence associated with the protest. Media scholars also believe that pessimistic war intentions did not originate from the media. This happened because the public did not understand the working style of the media. In fact, people believed that the media were mere transmitters of facts and news as they happened at the battle field. In this regard, the critical role many scholars attribute to media is beyond their attention. Changes in reporting styles after the Tet Offensive simply reflected changes in events of the war, sources, and the government role in attempts to regulate contents. In addition, the media reporting of the anti-war movement showed that they were not responsible for actions of protestors. Photographs have remained vital sources of information. Photographs are easier to recall than words. Images can influence or trigger different emotions in people. As a result, such emotions influence interpretation of photos. Influences of photos vary from individuals. However, scholars generally agree that photos have high capacity for memory, are less complex than words, and appeal to majorities. People may debate on what features make images or photos iconic. The Accidental Napalm photo remains an iconic image of the Vietnam War. This is because the image of a naked running girl cannot easily disappear from Americans’ minds. This image shows cruelty of the war. This photo attained the status of an iconic image because everyone could recognize and understand it. It captures a moment of history and creates a strong sense of emotions among audience. This photo had the capacity to ignite various views about the war. The media made the image and distributed it within their systems making the photo an icon. It created waves of negative reactions, prominence, subject of the war, and cultural aspects. Accidental Napalm photo is an image reflecting the nudity of the burning and shouting girl. This photo violated cultural concerns about nudity in order to excite debate about immorality of the war. The public should not have access to this picture. It shows what we should not see and an event that should not have occurred. In views of feminists, the naked girl depicts a victimized female figure during wars. This is t o say it is the women and children who suffer in the event of any war. There is a clear difference between the soldiers walking and children running from terror. The image can also lead to question the responsibility of soldiers to children during times of wars. The public cannot control their emotions when confronted with this photo. The photo evokes a sense of terror, pain, and pity. This photo remains the significant work of photojournalism in the history of war. A semiotic analysis reveals that attentions of viewers are on the nude girl. The photo does not provide much detail. However, we can see that the war claimed the innocence of a young girl rendering her nude and powerless before the soldiers and photographers who captured her nudity. The boy in the photo depicts terror of the war. All the children in this photo depict stiff contrast from the soldiers herding them down the street. It is also significant to note that these children do not have any parents in the photo. It r emains unclear whether the war had claimed their parents. The action of directing these children may show power of the soldiers over the war victims. The photo’s background shows thick and dark smoke. The dark smoke shows an image of threatening and risky situation during the battle. â€Å"The children from left to right are: Phan Thanh Tam, younger brother of Kim Phuc, who lost an eye, Phan Thanh Phouc, youngest brother of Kim Phuc, Kim Phuc, and Kim’s cousins Ho Van Bon, and Ho Thi Ting. Behind them are soldiers of the Vietnam Army 25th Division, June 8, 1972† (Nick Ut/AP Photo). Another photo of interest is the Tet Execution. The photo shows General Nguyen Ngoc Loan as he shoots a captured Viet Cong enemy at a close range. The national televisions aired this execution. However, it is the still picture that grabbed the viewers’ attention. The photo highlighted the facial expression of the war captive than did the live coverage of televisions. The photo became an iconic image because of the prominence and instantaneous influence it achieved. Still photos remain the most influential forms of representation in the world. The General and enemy only have a small gun between them. The photo is simple, but it shows the reality of war i.e. man-to-man confrontation where the aggressor and enemy are face-to-face. This photo shows the real brutality of the Vietnam War. The General does not indicate any emotion. The act of executing enemies is normal to him. On the other hand, Viet Cong’s expression generates feelings of empathy among audience. DURING: 1 February 1968 the national police chief of South Vietnam, General Nguyen Ngoc Loan shooting the enemy suspect in the head (Eddie Adams photo). The photo of Tet Execution shows how photography achieved influence in the photojournalism. We cannot assume the fact that the General was aware of the presence of the camera. Thus, he turned his back to hide his feelings and purpose. Converse ly, we can see an expression of a man waiting for the unknown in the prisoner. The prisoner’s dress code and hair are the opposite of the General who expresses power in his military attire. The prisoner may not be a military officer after all. Instead, he might be a civilian experiencing the cruelty of the war. The General shows disregard for the normal justice system. This image only depicts hatred that exists among soldiers during wars. The war depicted a show of power among soldiers (Anderegg, 1991). The General clearly expresses and flexes his muscles as he prepares to shoot his victim. On the other hand, the victim remains powerless since his hands are behind his back, tied thus, denying him the chance to defend himself. The victim’s acceptance of his fate is evident in his motionless body. The prisoner knows it is pointless in trying to defend himself or escape. There is also a soldier who cannot believe the proceeding event. As a result, he is holding his teeth tightly because of this inhumane act. The soldier has protective helmet, unlike the Viet Cong captive. This Tet Execution arouses feelings of empathy and portrays the General as a villain and the prisoner as a hero. We cannot completely understand circumstances of the photo. However, we can note that it is inhumane act against a helpless war victim. Therefore, the photo communicates the main act of war, which is to kill an enemy. As a result, viewers could experience atrocities that permeated the Vietnam War. In the view of Donald and McDonald, the image of Tet Execution can have significant influence on reinforcing masculinity among boys (Donald and MacDonald, 2011). The General’s victory over the victim can aid in reinforcing the male stereotype associated with combats and winning as these images are responsible for defining manly courage. Such images depicting the apotheosis of the US soldiers in wars are the current representations of the Vietnam War in various media as S locum portrays (Slocum, 2006; Lembcke, 1998). Conclusions Various scholars have expressed their ideas about the relationship between the media and war. From this point, we can understand the impact of iconic images of the Vietnam War through semiotic analysis. These photos show general features of powerlessness, emotions, and innocence that were present in the Vietnam War. We can now understand why these photos triggered emotions among American audience. The Accidental Napalm and Tet Execution arouse strong emotions of panic, fear, and pain among viewers making them iconic images of the war. Semiotic analyses of these photos show that they are capable of arousing strong emotions among viewers. Viewers can easily relate these photos to distress, loss of lives, unpleasant experiences, and terror of the war. These photos are icons of outrage and atrocities of the war, and viewers not accustomed to such scenes can easily have negative emotions. Photographs also captured innocence of the victims. These photos showed how innocent victims lost their lives during the war. The Tet Execution depicts the prisoner as an ordinary citizen and not an army officer. However, we learned that the victim was a Viet Cong soldier. The inhumane execution of this soldier shows disregard for the rule of the law and deviation from the concept of the war. The Accidental Napalm shows the innocence of the children caught in the middle of the battle. The photo depicts how the war stripped the little girl’s innocence. The absence of any parent in the photo also raises concerns about the fate of these children. The war has left these children to fend for each other. These photos also depict war victims who have no power to defend themselves. The Viet Cong is unable to defend himself against the General and soldiers. This sense of powerlessness reflects what the war has caused in South Vietnam. The little girl also remains powerless to events taking place in her country. These photos r emain crucial in representations of the Vietnam War. They also mark the role of photojournalism in depicting actual images of the war. Reference List Allan, S 2010, News Culture, Open University Press, New York. Allen, T and Seaton, J 1999, The Media of Conflict: War Reporting and Representations of Ethnic Violence, Zed Books, New York. Altheide, D 2009, Terror Post-9/11 and Media, Peter Lang, New York. Anderegg, M 1991, Inventing Vietnam: The War in Film and Television, Temple University Press, Philadelphia. Andersen, R 2006, A Century of Media, a Century of War, Peter Lang, New York. Auster, A and Quart, L 1988, How the War was Remembered: Hollywood and Vietnam, Praeger, New York. Buzzanco, R 1999, Vietnam and the Transformation of American Life, Blackwell Publishers, Malden. Cottle, S 2004, News, Public Relations and Power, Sage, London. Der Derian, J 2009, Virtuous War: Mapping the Military-Industrial-Media- Entertainment Network, 2nd edn, Westview Press, Colorado. Donald, R and MacDonald, K 2011, Reel Men at War: Masculinity and the American War Film, Scarecrow Press, Lanham MD. Franklin, B 2000, Vietnam and Other American Fantasies, University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst. Gilboa, E 2002, Media and Conflict: Framing Issues, Making Policy, Shaping Opinions, Transnational, Ardsley, NY. Grey, J 1992, Vietnam: War, Myth and Memory: Comparative Perspectives on Australia’s War, Allen Unwin, St Leonards. Hammond, P 2007, Media, War and Postmodernity, Routledge, London. Hixson, W 2000, Historical Memory and Representations of the Vietnam War, Garland Publishers, New York. Lembcke, J 1998, The Spitting Image: Myth, Memory, and the Legacy of Vietnam, New York UP, New York. Slocum, D 2006, Hollywood and War, The Film Reader, Routledge, London. Sturken, M 1997, Tangled Memories: The Vietnam War, the AIDS Epidemic, and the Politics of Remembering, University of California Press, Berkeley. Appendices Bombs with a mixture of napalm and white phosphorus jell y dropped by Vietnamese Air Force Skyraider bombers explode across Route 1, amid homes and in front of the Cao Dai temple on the outskirts of Trang Bang, Vietnam, June 8, 1972. (Nick Ut/AP Photo) Nick Ut took this image seconds after his famous shot, of Kim Phuc running down the street. Television crews and South Vietnamese troops surround 9-year-old Kim Phuc on Route 1 near Trang Bang, South Vietnam, after she was burned by a misdirected aerial napalm attack, June 8, 1972. (Nick Ut/AP) Phan Tai Kim Phuc, 9, is comforted by her mother in a Saigon, Vietnam, hospital, two days after she was severely burned during a misplaced napalm attack on her village, June 10, 1972.(Robinson/AP Photo) From right, Associated Press staff photographer Nick Ut, Phan Thi Kim Phuc and Dr. My Le, who treated Kim Phuc two days after a napalm attack in Vietnam 40 years ago, sit together during a reunion in Buena Park, Calif., June 2, 2012. (Jae C. Hong/AP Photo) Britain’s Queen Elizabeth II, righ t, opens the new Welcome Wing of London‘s Science Museum with Associated Press photographer Nick Ut, left and Phan Thi Kim Phuc, centre, June 27, 2000. Ut’s image of Kim is featured in the museum. (Ian Jones/AP Photo) BEFORE: South Vietnamese forces escort suspected Viet Cong officer Nguyen Van Lem (also known as Bay Lop) on a Saigon street Feb. 1, 1968, early in the Tet Offensive. (AP Photo/Eddie Adams AFTER: The victim falls dead on the ground and police chief calmly puts the gun back January 9, 1964 a soldier of the Army of South Vietnam stabs a farmer, assuming that he was lying on the movements of the Viet Cong – North Vietnamese soldiers. (AP Photo/Horst Faas) This dissertation on Photos of Vietnam War was written and submitted by user Franco Byers to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. 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Street Children in Vietnam

Street Children in Vietnam Free Online Research Papers 1. Introduction Street Children are children living on streets to earn their living. According to Canadas International Policy Statement (Canada International Development Agency, Street Children 2008),the street children population worldwide is likely well over 100 million. The problem of street children exists in both, the developed as well as developing countries, with differences in its size and magnitude. However, this issue is especially serious in such poor or developing countries as Cambodia, Somalia, Sudan, etc. As a developing one, Vietnam is not an exception. The statistic of the Ministry of Labor, Invalids, and Social Affairs (MOLISA) (Bo Lao dong- Thuong Binh va xa hoi 11 February 2009), indicated that there were approximately over 20,000 street children in Vietnam ( U.S. Department of State, Vietnam, March 11-2008). Although the Government has made a special effort to reduce this number, it seems that the general status has not been improved remarkably. This paper is made for a par ticular purpose: bringing out an overview of street children in Vietnam by giving the clearest definition of street children, the reason why they end up on streets and also some advice to solve this global issue. 2. Discussion of findings 2.1. Definition of street children Different countries describe street children in different ways. The Terre des homes (Terre des homes 2004) brings out the definition that street children are â€Å"the children who live on streets and are not taken care of by parents or other protective guardians†. In Vietnam, the street children are called as â€Å"dust of life† (Human Right Watch, Children of the Dust 2006). In other words, today, it is widely understood that the term †street children† encompasses children living in a wide range of situations. However, as stated in â€Å"Street Children† (Seal of Approval, Street Children), two general categories below have been frequently used to describe them: the children living and working in streets and the children working on streets who maintain regular contact with their families. In this paper, the definition of street children above continues to be used for the clearest meaning. Many of the children ending up on the streets struggle to make a few VND by shining shoes, sorting rubbish to sell salvaged scraps or selling lottery ticket†¦.However, there is not a small number of these children who gain money from pilfering, pickpocketing, or even selling illegal drugs. Some, particularly girls, get forced into the sex trade. Street children mostly live in urban areas, especially the areas attracting foreigners like Hoan Kiem Lake, around ancient streets (in Hanoi) or Pham Ngu Lao (Ho Chi Minh City). Furthermore, the street children also go to some crowded local residents to find a job, such as in some big markets ( Long Bien, Dong Xuan in Hanoi and Ben Thanh,Cau Muoi in HCM City), fishing area in Phuc Xa commune or Thanh Xuan District (Hanoi)†¦. (Human Right Watch, Children of the Dust 2006) 2.2 Why they are on the streets The youth end up on the streets for a variety of reasons including war, poverty, urbanization, natural disasters, and so on . But in Vietnam, the factors pushing children to live on streets in the great part are related to the below ones: a. Broken family As a result of an increase in the number of divorce cases in Vietnam society, the number of children –the first victims – is also going up remarkably in recent years. Being hurt of the break-up of parents, such children are always under stress and of course, easily discouraged from study (Terre des homes 2004). Besides, the children whose one or both parents are dead are also affected by psychological damage, which may bring them the state of being street children (Terre des homes 2004). The feeling of loss makes them undergo a great emotional shock, even if they are still brought up by close relatives. As a result of being too young to have mature thoughts, such poor children are also no longer interested in studying. Therefore, those children are easily lured by bad friends to leave their homes and becoming street children is an inevitable consequence for them (Duong Kim Hong and Kenichi Ohno 2005). The recent survey of the Committee of Population, Family and Children in Hanoi (2004) bore out this above statement by discovering that 12.3% of the interviewed children were from a broken family (cited in Duong Kim Hong and Kenichi Ohno 2005). According to MOLISA data (ibid) for 2001,there are estimately 4,000 abandoned children that become street children all over the country. b. Poverty Poverty is also considered as a major cause of an increasing number of street children in Vietnam. In a survey conducted by VDF (cited in Duong Kim Hong and Kenichi Ohno 2005), nearly  ¾ of the interviewed children mentioned that the reason why they have to end up on street is that their family don’t afford to live without their working and earning money hard. The causes of poverty have been attributed to several factors, such as natural disasters, joblessness, illness, lack of education, and so on. Due to the poor state of family, the children have to work hard for many hours each day instead of having the basic human right of being educated. Furthermore, as stated in Plan Australia, in some under-developed areas, as a result of gender-based discrimination, the girls in poor families may be abandoned, or even be sold by their own parents. These are only a few salient points that indicated the reason why the kid whose family is poor also hold a quite large amount in st reet children. c. Domestic violence and abuse Domestic violence and abuse are also factors creating conditions whereby children decide to run away from homes. Based on Friend- International’s figures, about 10% of street children in Vietnam escaped from homes due to being hit unreasonably by their parents, especially by the father, frequently. Home violence is said to hurt children dangerously by making them always be scared of strangers and skeptical of other people’s kindness. Based on a research of Childhope Asia Philippines, the children who used to be treated violently also have the tendency to treat others violently. Child abuse is the maltreatment of children, which consists of 4 types: emotional abuse, physical abuse, child neglect and sexual abuse. All these types lead to long-term effect on children’s behavior and characteristics. Some of the many consequences are children’s difficulty in school or concentration, behaviors of lying or stealing, manipulation or uncontrollable actions, and so on . (Terre des homes 2004) 2.3 The risks to street children As an inevitable result, once on the streets, these young people are exposed and vulnerable to a number of risks. A recent research about Street Children (Children of the Andes) noted that the children are vulnerable to be attacked by such chronic diseases as TB, leprosy, typhoid, malaria, jaundice and liver/kidney disorders. They also easily suffer from dirt, smoke, other environmental hazards, and even HIV AIDS. Another research (Terre des homes 2004) showed some facts about Vietnamese street children’s risks when he asked the street children what the biggest dangers to them are at the table below: Risks Girls (% mentioning) (n=116) Boys (% mentioning) (n=221) Total (% mentioning) Drug addiction 48.3 49.8 49.3 An accident 23.3 20.8 21.7 Being beaten by other children 12.9 22.2 18.7 Being rounded up by police/other authorities 16.4 17.2 16.9 Being robbed 13.8 10.9 11.9 Being fined by the police/other authorities 12.1 8.1 9.5 Turning to crime / going to prison 4.3 11.8 9.2 Getting HIV/AIDS 7.8 7.2 7.4 Being exploited 6.0 5.9 5.9 (Sexual abuse) 10.3 0.0 3.6 (Source: Terre des homes 2004) As we can see from the table, street children have a high risk to be sexually abused or otherwise exploited. Furthermore, being dependent on drugs is also a problems among these kids (nearly 50% of those who were conducted in this survey is in the state of drug addiction). Besides, without education, they have little hope of getting a decent job or building a better life in the future. Children may be lured by the prospect of a more exciting life in the city or a chance to earn money. The reality is that they usually live in terrible conditions with no-one to protect them and often no record that they even exist. Therefore, they can easily end up working for little pay in dangerous conditions. Such ways of making money among street children like sex work, beggar, thief, etc. lead to the state of increasing social problems in our country, including rising illiteracy rate, decreasing in social morality and even preventing these children’s humanity development. 3. Conclusion and recommendation This investigation indicates that behind the definition of street children, there are a variety of conditions, both for what concerns the motivation that brings young people to work on the streets and their ways of surviving dependently on streets. The research also implies that the children should be taken care of more by society for the best developments. To deal with the illiteracy among street children, establishing vocational training centers and schools is important. Projects should also improve the quality of street children’s living conditions by building houses for them or allowing adequate families to adopt the children who lost protection from guardians. In addition, the people who are responsible for this field are advised to strengthen the network of promoting children’s rights and child protection between urban and rural areas of street children’s origin to facilitate family reunification and community integration and to prevent ch ildren from running away from home. Last but not least, it is necessary to promote child-friendly environments in the business community and factories in order to exploit job opportunities for street children and to help them stay longer with jobs. This is essential to ensure a stable life for street children or adolescents and also their long-term inclusion into society. Research Papers on Street Children in VietnamNever Been Kicked Out of a Place This NiceThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyThe Spring and AutumnComparison: Letter from Birmingham and CritoRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andHip-Hop is Art

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Resume Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Design a simple apnea detection system

Design a simple apnea detection system CHAPTER 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION AIM The aim of the project is to design a simple apnea detecting system with an alarm and to classify the type of apnea identified using LabVIEW. 1.1.1 Normal Respiratory Event: Respiration is the phenomenon of supplying oxygen to the tissues and removing the carbon dioxide from the tissues. External respiration is the process of exchange of gases between the lungs and atmosphere. Internal respiration is the process of gas exchange in the tissues. The balance between the absorption and excretion of these gases in blood are maintained as breathing activity. During inspiration the level of blood in oxygen increases and it decreases during exhalation. Chemoreceptors are the sensory receptors in the blood stream that senses the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood ,and sends signals to the brain. Then the brain allows the opening of larynx and vocal cords, followed by the expansion of ribcage and diaphragm muscles. The chest cavity enlarges to allow the inflow of oxygen into the lungs thus resulting in inhalation process. Similarly the chest cavity occludes during the process of exhalation and expels the carbon dioxide from lungs. More of oxygen inflow re sults in maximum tidal volume and a normal respiratory flow. Fig 1.1 shows the normal respiratory signal with respiration rate of 12 breaths per minute. 1.1.2 Applications Sleep analysis Polygraphy Pulmonary function Stress test Sports Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) 1.1.3 Respiration Signal Specifications Amplitude 2-200mV Frequency waveform-0 150Hz Repetition frequency- 20 cycles per minute (adults) 100 cycles per minute (neonates) 1.1.4 Respiratory Measurements Respiration rate Tidal volume Apneas Obstructive apnea Central apnea Hypopnea Tachypnea Bradypnea Apnea index Also several correlations between EEG, REM sleep, apneas, quiet sleep, non-quiet sleep and de-saturations. 1.2 APNEA AND ITS TYPES Apnea is the cessation of breathing during sleep which may precede the arrest of the heart and circulation in several clinical situations such as head injury, drug overdose, anesthetic complications and obstructive respiratory diseases. Apnea may also occur in premature babies during the first weeks of life because of their immature nervous system. If apnea persists for a prolonged period, brain function can be severely damaged. Therefore, patients suffering from apnea require close and constant observation of their respiratory activity. Apnea monitors are particularly useful for monitoring the respiratory activity of premature infants. There are three types of sleep apnea. They are Obstructive apnea Central sleep apnea Mixed or complex sleep apnea 1.2.1 Obstructive Sleep Apnea Individuals with obesity due to low muscle tone and soft tissue around the airway give rise to a narrowed airway ,so they are at high risk of obstructive sleep apnea. The elderly people are more likely to suffer from OSA than young people because of their food habits, smoking and alcoholic life style. Men are more typical sleep apnea sufferers when compared to women and children.The risk of OSA rises with increasing body weight, age, high cholesterol, sinus problems, and in addition, patients with diabetes have up to three times the risk of having OSA compared to others. Loudsnoring, restless sleep, and sleepiness during the daytime are some of the common symptoms of OSA. Diagnostic tests include homeoximetryorpolysomnographyin a sleep clinic. Treatment includes CPAP apparatus that gives continuous positive airway pressure in order to expand their narrowed nasal pathway 1.2.2 Central Sleep Apnea When the brains respiratory control centers are imbalanced during sleep, it results in pure central sleep apnea ,also called as Cheyne-Stokes respiration. In this type of apnea the brain pauses to trigger the respiratory activity for about 30 seconds and triggers when it realizes that the patient suffocates for oxygen. The sleeper do not breathe for a certain period, during which there are no chest movements and no effort by the patient. Brain does not react immediately with a neurological feedback to make the respiratory rate even. There is a swing between apnea and hyperpnea in order to compensate the need for oxygen. After an apnea episode the hypoxia condition is reduced by breathing faster and absorbing more oxygen. Central sleep apnea may be due to hypertension, excess stress,and neuronal damage.In most of the cases CSA is treated with medications while some need surgery. Fig.1.3 shows Central Sleep Apnea. 1.2.3 Mixed Sleep Apnea Mixed sleep apnea is a combination of obstructive and central sleep apnea . It is also called as complex sleep apnea.When obstructive sleep apnea syndrome is severe and longstanding, some episodes of central apnea develop during the course of sleep. Though the exact mechanism of the loss of central respiratory drive during sleep in OSA is unknown it is most commonly related to acid-base and CO2feedback malfunctions originating fromheart failure. Complex sleep apnea has been described by researchers as a different dimension of sleep apnea. Patients with complex sleep apnea when treated with positive airway pressure for OSA was observed to exhibit persistent central sleep apnea. In sleep-disordered breathing there is a collection of diseases and symptoms relating to body mass, cardiovascular, respiratory, and occasionally, neurological dysfunction that have a synergistic effect. 1.2.4 Hypopnea Hypopnea refers to a transient reduction of airflow (often while asleep) that lasts for at least 10 seconds, shallow breathing, or an abnormally low respiratory rate. Breathing that is shallower or slower than normal. Hypopnea is distinct from apnea in which there is no breathing. Hypopnea comes from the Greek roots hypo- (meaning low, under, beneath, down, below normal) and pnoe (meaning breathing). Hypopnea is less severe than apnea (which is a more complete loss of airflow). It may likewise result in a decreased amount of air movement into the lungs and can cause oxygen levels in the blood to drop. It more commonly is due to partial obstruction of the upper airway 1.2.5 Tachypnea Tachypnea means elevated respiratory rate. In some situations, this might be usual, for example when climbing a flight of stairs. In disease it is indicative of problems with oxygenation. It occurs when the patient is breathing really hard to compensate for the higher than usual PCO2. When the patient is tachypneic it is important to sit him up in bed. In tachypnea the tidal volume is decreased, the minute volume may be the same because the respiratory rate is increased. Decreased tidal volume will have bad consequences for the patient because a lot of energy is being spent on moving dead air space which does not help oxygenate the interior of lungs where gas exchange takes place. 1.2.6 Bradypnea This is a slow respiratory rate which is seen in the post anesthetic or sedated patient. Bradypnea is also seen in patients who have taken overdoses of barbiturates and/or hypnotics. Bradypnea with a respiratory rate of more than ten breaths may correct itself as the patient recovers from the anaesthetic gases. Sometimes, in bradypnea, the patient compensates by increasing the tidal volume thereby the blood gases and oxygen saturation remain stable.Fig 1.6 shows bradypnea with respiratory rate 8b/min. 1.3 IMPEDANCE PNEUMOGRAPHY Impedance pneumography is another practical method to monitor the breathing of the patient. The technique also enables the simultaneous monitoring of the heart rate and respiration. This has certain inherent disadvantages. One is that the placement of the electrodes is very critical and other is cardiovascular artifact. This results from the detection of movement between the electrodes because of the cardiovascular system, rather than due to respiration. Apnea monitors need to be designed to reject this artifact. The principle of impedance pneumography is to pass a current through the chest between two electrodes, and from the resultant voltage to determine the changes in chest impedance which occur during respiration. It has been proposed that the impedance change occurring in respiration is directly proportional to the change in volume of air contained in the thorax, and therefore reflects tidal volume. The technique works by applying a current of approximately 10 microamperes to 1milliamperes with a frequency of 30-100 kHz to the thorax. This frequency is high enough to avoid stimulation of tissues, electrode polarization and excessively high skin impedance. The electrodes are always maintained with negligible potential difference which makes it possible to measure the impedance of a central core of thoracic tissue.Thus these impedance changes are obtained as thoracic changes that gives details about respiration.Fig 1.7 shows the block diagram Of impedance pneumography technique. 1.4 LABVIEW AND ITS APPLICATIONS LabVIEW Laboratory Virtual Instrumentation Engineering Workbench.LabVIEW is a graphical programming environment used by millions of engineers and scientists to develop sophisticated measurement, test, and control systems using intuitive graphical icons and wires that resemble a flowchart. Biomedical Application: Multisim Simulation with anECGAmplifier Noninvasive Blood Pressure (NIBP) Analyzer Analog ECGGenerator Heart Rate Variability (HRV) Analyzer ECG Feature Extractor Online Biosignal Noise Reduction Data Logger Biosignal Logger OBJECTIVES To collect the respiratory database To study the apnea characteristics To detect and classify apnea To achieve maximum accuracy To design a respiratory signal simulation system CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 2.1 RESPIRATION DATA ACQUISITION, CONVERSION AND DISPLAY SYSTEM 2.1.1 Methodology Respiration data is acquired and converted into a series of pulses, the frequency of which is related to the respiration rate of the data measured . The output pulses switch a timing device on and â€Å"off †, and the average time of a respiration cycle is then converted and displayed as respiration rate. The timing device includes a means for delaying a first output pulses before beginning the sampling period and registering a count of clock pulses for a specified number which represents the time period of a second specified number of the output pulses occurring subsequently to the first specified number of output pulses. 2.1.2 Conclusion This invention relates to an acquisition unit for acquiring data relating to one or more physiological variables from a patient. Displaying the data digitally and, upon operator approval, recording the data in an internal memory. Further, the invention relates to a data storage system responsive to data stored in an acquisition unit for a display presentation. 2.2 METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR DETERMINING A RESPIRATIONPARAMETER IN A MEDICAL DEVICE Shrivastav, Maneesh, Cho, Yong K., Bennett, Tommy D., Erickson, Mark K., Greenhut, Saul E., Kleckner, Karen J., Sperling, Charles P., Corey, Robert A. 2.2.1 Methodology A pressure sensor senses pressure signals, and a signal processor, coupled to the pressure sensor, receives the sensed pressure signaland generates corresponding sample points. A microprocessor continuously adjusts a breath detection threshold in response to the generated sample points to generate a current adjusted breath detection threshold. Then it compares a current generated sample point to the current adjusted breath detection threshold, suspends the continuous adjusting of the breath detection threshold. Then the microcontroller sets the breath detection threshold equal to the most current adjusted breath detection threshold generated prior to the suspending, and determines the respirationparameter in response to a comparing of a next generated sample point to the set breath detection threshold. 2.2.2 Conclusion This invention relates to a method of acquisition of respiratory signal using pressure sensor and displays that respiration parameter using a microcontroller. 2.3 METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR MONITORING RESPIRATION Rymut, Russell, Slotty, Eric, Kini, Narendra 2.3.1 Methodology The apparatus includes a piezoelectric film which converts acoustical waves generated by the patients respiration activity into electrical signal output. The piezoelectric film sensor placed in the subject can be used to monitor the respiration of a patient by correlating the sound generated in the patients airway with respiratory activity. Further, the data generated by the sensor may be further analyzed by a patient monitor to diagnose respiratory conditions and display it. 2.3.2 Conclusion This invention relates to a method and apparatus for monitoring and quantitatively measuring the respiration of a patient , particularly, using a flexible piezoelectric film sensor. 2.4 APNEA MONITOR Guixian Lu 2.4.1 Methodology 1. A conductive rubber string is used to measure the chest volume changes. It is not suitable for OSA. In that case a differential gas flow sensor is used. The output of the sensors is amplified and then fed to a re-shaper. 3.The re-shaper re-shapes the signal and generates pulses to trigger the counter. 4.The counter triggers the alarm circuit if the count exceeds a predetermined threshold. 2.4.2 Conclusion For adults one rubber string is enough. But for infants, the frequency of the body movement is measured. So an additional rubber string with motion detector is needed. The gas flow sensor is reliable and sensitive. A buzzer is used to give alarm. 2.5 DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION OF A PROGRAMMABLE APNEA MONITORING SYSTEM Mustafa ÇavuÅŸoÄŸlu, Osman EroÄŸul , Ziya Telatar 2.5.1 Methodology Respiratory signal is perceived by a thermal sensor. The signal is amplified and then fed to the microcontroller. The output of microcontroller is transferred to the computer and the relation between ECG and the signal is evaluated. An alarm system is also provided to indicate apnea 2.5.2 Conclusion The system is capable of detecting apnea, warns during the apnea and transfers the respiration signals to the computer. Finally,categorization of the apnea intervals is done to generate a real-time histogram of their frequency and duration which makes possible to investigate the relations between the EEG, ECG or other physiological signals and the respiratory patterns. 2.6 APNEA ALARM SYSTEMS 2.6.1 Methodology A crib or bed with piezo electric or strain gauge transducer attached to each leg is used to acquire the movement of infants. Whenever the infant is breathing there is a variation in the force distibution in the foam mat, so the vertical force applied on the frame of the crib also varies,which is captured by the sensors attached to the leg of the crib. These sensors convert the force into an electrical output signal and gives it to a summing amplifier to provide a summed output signal from all four legs. The summed output is given to a microcontroller where it is compared with the patients physical parameters to give an alarm if there is apnea detected using a buzzer or flashing light. 2.6.2 Conclusion This apparatus helps to detect apnea in infants who can be monitored even at home instead of hospitals.This alarm system is more comfortable to babies as it does not attach any sensor to infant s body.Mainly used to detect death due to apnea (‘crib death or ‘cot death ) very common in premature infants. 2.7 APNEA MONITOR DATA SYSTEM 2.7.1 Methodology An apnea monitoring system along with a portable data storage cartridge is presented. Respiration is monitored through the electrodes located on the thoracic cavity of the patient. Detected events are compared with respiration rates and when it is exceeded the signal is transmitted to audio and visual alarms indicating apnea. In addition to that a poratable data storage cartridge is provided which has enough memory to store all monitored events and waveforms that can be transferred to computer. 2.7.2 Conclusion This invention not only helps to monitor also contains a portable cartridge,that can be easily carried or mailed,which makes it time efficient and cost efficient method to store data.Another advantage is that the cartridge is replaceable,which provides an unlimited amount of memory space that helps in transfer of data. 2.8 A MODEL ANALYSIS OF ARTERIAL OXYGEN DESATURATION DURING APNEA IN PRETERM INFANTS Scott A. Sands, Bradley A. Edwards, Vanessa J. Kelly, Malcolm R. Davidson, Malcolm H. Wilkinson, Philip J. Berge 2.8.1 Methodology Independent influence of clinically relevant cardiorespiratory fators on the desaturation of arterial oxygen during apnea is determined using a two-compartmental lung-body mathematical model which incorporated realistic oxygen stores and gas exchange dynamic Analytic solutions were derived for arterial oxygen desaturation to quantify the importance of cardiorespiratory factors on arterial oxygen desaturation such as cardiac output, lung volume, metabolic oxygen consumption, pre-apneic ventilation, blood oxygen affinity, hemoglobin content and blood volume The model analysis reveals that lung volume, hemoglobin content, cardiac output, pre-apneic ventilation exerts a unique effect on arterial oxygen desaturation throughout the time-course of desaturation and metabolic oxygen consumption is uniformly influential throughout the process. Infants with elvated metabolic needs and low lung volume and those with anemia, cardiac dysfunction or hypovolemia which are common in prematurity are at heightened risk of rapid and profound arterial desaturation during apnea. 2.8.2 Conclusion A mathematical framework for quantifying the relative importance of key cardiorespiratory factors on the rate of arterial oxygen desaturation during apnea with particular relevance to preterm infants is provided. Each of the factors examined has a signature influence on the trajectory of desaturation, providing quantitativeinsight into the causes of rapidlydeveloping hypoxemia during apnea have been demonstrated. 2.9 OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA AS A RISK FACTOR FOR STROKE AND DEATH H. Klar Yaggi, M.D., M.P.H., John Concato, M.D., M.P.H., Walter N. Kernan, M.D., Judith H. Lichtman, Ph.D., M.P.H., Lawrence M. Brass, M.D., and Vahid Mohsenin, M.D. 2.9.1 Methodology 1.In this study patients underwent polysomnography and subsequent events like stroke and death are verified. 2.The diagnosis was based on apnea-hypopnea index of the patients.Patients with apnea-hypopnea index of less than 5 served as a comparison group. 3.Proportional hazards analysis was used to determine the independent effect of OSA syndrome on the outcome of stroke or death from any cause. 4.The mean apnea-hypopnea index for the patient with syndrome is 35 while the same for patients in the comparison group is 2. 5.After adjustment for age,sex, diabetes mellitus, smoking status, alcohol consumption status, body-mass index, hypertension, the OSA syndrome retained a statistically significant association with stroke or death. 2.9.2 Conclusion The obstructive sleep apnea syndrome significantly and severely increases the chance for stroke or death from any cause. The increase for the risk of stroke or death due to OSA syndrome is independent of the other risk factors,including hypertension. 2.10 AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CONTINUOUS POSITIVE AIRWAY PRESSURE FOR THE TREATMENT OF OBSTRUCTIVE SLEEP APNEA-HYPOPNEA SYNDROME Helen L. A. Weatherly, Susan C. Griffin, Catriona Mc Daid, Kate H. Durà ©e, Robert J. O. Davies, John R. Stradling, Marie E. Westwood and Mark J. Sculpher. 2.10.1 Methodology This study reports on the cost-effectiveness of the continuous airway-pressure(CPAP) compared with the dental devices and lifestyle advice to the patient. The Markov model compared the interventions over the patients life expectancy. The primary measure for cost-effectiveness was the incremental cost per quality adjusted life-year(QALY) gained for every patient. On further analysis, CPAP was associated with higher costs and QALYs compared with dental devices and lifestyle advice. The result of analysis was that the probability that CPAP is more cost-effective than dental devices or lifestyle advice at a threshold value of  £20,000 per QALY was 0.78 for men and 0.80 for women. 2.10.2 Conclusion This model suggests that CPAP is cost-effective compared with dental devices and also the lifestyle advice for adults with moderate or severe symptomatic Obstructive Sleep Apnea -Hypopnea Syndrome are at the cost-effectiveness thresholds used by NICE. This finding is reflected in the NICE guidance. CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3.1 EXISTING METHODS Several contactless methods are available for monitoring the respiration of infants. The most successful apnea monitors to-date been mattress monitors. These instruments rely for their operation on the fact that the process of breathing redistributes an infants weight and this is detected by some form of a pressure sensitive pad or mattress on which infant is nursed. The mattress, in its simplest form, is a multi-compartment air bed, and in this case the weight redistribution forces air to flow from one compartment to another. The air flow is detected by the cooling effect it produces on a heated thermistor bead. Though the technique is simple, the main disadvantage with the air mattress is the short-term sensitivity variation and the double peaking effect when inspiration or expiration produces separate cooling of the thermistor. Alternatively, a capacitance type pressure sensor in the form of a thin square pad is usually placed under or slightly above the infants head. Respiratory movements produce regular pressure changes on the pad and these alter the capacitance between the electrode plates incorporated in the pad. The capacitance change is measured by applying a 200 kHz signal across the electrodes and by detecting the current flow with a phase-sensitive amplifier. The disadvantage of this method is that the system is much too sensitive to people moving nearby and thus an electrically screened incubator is essential for the infant. 3.1.1 METHOD ADOPTED This project is based on impedance pneumography method. Impedance pneumography is one of the practical methods to monitor the breathing of the patient. The technique also enables the simultaneous monitoring of the heart rate and respiration. This has certain inherent disadvantages. One is that the placement of the electrodes is very critical and other is cardiovascular artifact. This results from the detection of movement between the electrodes because of the cardiovascular system, rather than due to respiration. Apnea monitors need to be designed to reject this artifact. So in this project the respiratory signal is considered to be acquired by using respiratory sensor. As there is no availability of sensor, respiratory signal is simulated using our own designed impedance pneumography technique based circuit. Then this signal is given to microcontroller where apnea is detected and it then triggers an alarm. The classification of apnea is also done using LabVIEW. In future respiratory sensor will be designed and the respiratory signal will be acquired. Then this signal can be given to the microcontroller directly. 3.2 RESPIRATORY SIGNAL SIMULATION The respiratory signal simulation circuit consists of an excitation source and a constant current source circuit which gives a high frequency, low voltage and constant current signal. This constant current will be applied to the thorax of the subject. But due to the ethical issues the current is applied on the resistance circuit which acts as the thorax impedance. This circuit in turn gives a voltage signal. This voltage signal will be amplified by an instrumentation amplifier. The amplified signal will be fed to the LabVIEW for classification of normal and apnea signal and also types of apnea. Figure 3.2.1 shows the block diagram to simulate respiratory signal and the hardware design of the circuit 3.2.1 EXCITATION SOURCE The wien bridge oscillator which produces 50kHz and 8 V peak to peak signal is used as the excitation signal. The operational amplifier used in the circuit is LF351. The Voltage gain of the amplifier must be at least 3. The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared toRso that theRCnetwork is not overloaded and alter the required conditions.The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect of external loading is minimized. Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be provided because if the voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation will decay and if it is too large the waveform becomes distorted 3.2.2 CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE The constant source circuit is used to generate a 4mA constant current to be applied on the resistance circuit. CL100 and CK100 transistors are used in this circuit and these are npn and pnp paired transistors. The base emitter on voltage of these transistors is 0.9V. The collector current can be found by using the formula, Ic= (Vcc-Vbe)/Rc Where Vcc-Supply voltage Rc-Collector Resistance Vbe-Base emitter on voltage 3.2.3 PHANTOM MODEL The model consists of four resistors of 500 ohms which mimics the thoracic resistance. 3.3 DATA COLLECTION To know about characteristics of normal respiration and apnea their corresponding signals were essential. So 40 respiration data sets with 100 sample values in each data set were collected from PHYSIONET -PHYSIOBANK ATM. Among these 20 were normal data sets obtained from SLEEP HEART HEALTH STUDY POLYSOMNOGRAPHY DATABASE (SHHPSGDB) while the other 20 were apnea data sets obtained from UCD SLEEP APNEA DATABASE (UCDDB). In Apnea data sets 10 belonged to Central Sleep Apnea and remaining 10 to Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Each Data set contained 100 samples whose units are volts(V).They were recorded for 100seconds.So on plotting each data we get time in X-axis and volts in Y axis. 3.4 CLASSIFICATION OF APNEA USING RESPIRATION RATE Input data which contains 60 samples each. Normalizing of the signal by squaring the signal. Extraction of maximum peak for every 5 samples.Display of respiratory cycles. If the peak value is greater than 6V it will be counted as normal respiratory cycle. If the count is between 10 and 20 the signal will be having normal respiratory rate. If the count is less than 10 the signal will be classified as bradypnea. If the count is greater than 20 the signal will be classified as tachypnea As the parameter of respiratory rate alone is not enough for classifying the types of apnea the statistical parameters are calculated and then signals are classified using LabVIEW. FLOWCHART 3.5 CLASSIFICATION OF APNEA USING STATISTICAL PARAMETERS The signal data was imported from a spread sheet into labview using READ FROM SPREADSHEET block in labview. Then signal was plotted as a graph using WAVEFORM CHART block. The data cannot be manipulated directly so the transpose of the data is taken to find the statistical parameters using TRANSPOSE ARRAY block. Now using the STATISTICS block the signals various parameters like arithmetic mean, median, mode, maximum peak, minimum peak, range, standard deviation variance, and rms value are found and recorded. Considering the range and mean of the signal it can be classified as its respective type. Give the upper and (or) lower limit for range and mean. Now using AND operator the signal is classified when its condition are satisfied. When the signal s range is greater than 7 and its mean is less than 0.1 it is normal. When the signal s range is lesser than 6 and its mean is greater than 0.21 it is abnormal. When the signal s range lies below 3.0 it is obstructive. When the signal s rang e lies between 3.1 and 6.99 it is central. FLOWCHART CHAPTER 4 4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 4.1.1 Hardware Results Output from the excitation source (wein bridge oscillator) was checked in MULTISIM and then implemented using hardware. On applying the constant current to a resistance network that imitates human thoracic impedance , the current varied to a greater extent because of loading effect. The same problem will occur even when the patient is connected to the high frequency, low voltage, constant current module. Also, due to ethical issues the constant current generated cannot be given to the patient directly. So monitoring of real time data could not be done using the hardware design. Hence ,the idea of respiration signal simulation was dropped and offline data were collected from respiration databases for further classification. 4.1.2 Normal and Apnea Data To know about characteristics of normal respiration and apnea their corresponding signals were essential. So 40 respiration data sets with 100 sample values in each data set were collected from PHYSIONET -PHYSIOBANK ATM. Among these 20 were normal data sets obtained from SLEEP HEART HEALTH STUDY POLYSOMNOGRAPHY DATABASE (SHHPSGDB) while the other 20 were apnea data sets obtained from UCD SLEEP APNEA DATABASE(UCDDB).The Resulting plot for each type of respiration signal is plotted below. The following figure shows the normal respiration data plotted for 100 samples with time in x-axis and amplitude in y-axis with a maximum peak to peak voltage of 8V and 24 respiration cycles for 100seconds. The following figure 4.4 shows Ce

Malaria Essay -- Biology Medical Biomedical Disease

Abstract: Malaria, which has killed more people than those killed by all the war and all the plagues combined, is caused by a small protozoan parasite of the genus Plasmodium that resides within cells in the bloodstream to mature and avoid detection. There are four main species of Plasmodium that cause malaria. These species of the parasite infect humans and female anopheline mosquitoes at different stages in their life cycle. When an infected female anopheline mosquito feeds upon the blood of the vertebrate, the parasite is transferred through the saliva, into the body of the vertebrate host. Once in the bloodstream the parasite makes its way to the liver and then infects the cells in the liver and in the bloodstream. Malaria is a vector-borne disease caused by the protozoan parasite, Plasmodium. It infects approximately 300 million people a year and is responsible for 1 – 1.5 million deaths each year. Though cases of this disease rarely occur in the US, they are still prevalent in developing areas of the world such as Africa, Asia, and Latin America. There are 156 species of Plasmodium that are known to infect vertebrates. From that group, there are 4 main species that cause various forms of this deadly, yet preventable and curable disease in humans: Plasmodium falciparum; Plasmodium vivax; Plasmodium ovale; and Plasmodium malaria, which can also cause malaria in certain species of apes that are closely related to humans. The main differences between the species of Plasmodium are the appearance (shape and size), the developmental stages of the parasite, the manner is which they infect their host, and the appearance of the blood cells that they infect. Despite the difference between these species, they still target the sa... ...cells in the liver and bloodstream. Using the protection of the cell and making proteins that cause the cells to stick the walls of the blood vessels to avoid being destroyed by the spleen, the parasite is able to stay one step ahead of the immune system of the host. In the blood stream the parasite uses the glucose need for cell process, lysis infected and uninfected blood cells, and release toxins to the blood streams that can lead to serious complications. 4 Bibliography: Mali, Sonja. "Traveler's Health: Yellow Book." Malaria. CDC. 26 Jul 2006 . "Microbiology @ Leicester." Malaria. November 11, 2005. Leicester. 26 Jul 2006 . "Malaria." Malaria. 29 July 2006. Wikipedia. 26 Jul 2006 .